The M1911 is a single-action, semi-automatic, magazine-fed, and recoil-operated handgun chambered for the .45 ACP cartridge.[1] It was designed by John M. Browning, and was the standard-issue side arm for the United States armed forces from 1911 to 1985, and is still carried by some U.S. forces. It was widely used in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. Its formal designation as of 1940 was Automatic Pistol, Caliber .45, M1911 for the original Model of 1911 or Automatic Pistol, Caliber .45, M1911A1 for the M1911A1, adopted in 1924. The designation changed to Pistol, Caliber .45, Automatic, M1911A1 in the Vietnam era.[1] In total, the United States procured around 2.7 million M1911 and M1911A1 pistols in military contracts during its service life.

The M1911 is the most well-known of John Browning’s designs to use the short recoil principle in its basic design. Besides the pistol being widely copied itself, this operating system rose to become the pre-eminent type of the 20th century and of nearly all modern centerfire pistols. It is popular with civilian shooters in competitive events such as IDPA, International Practical Shooting Confederation, and Bullseye shooting. It is also a popular civilian concealed carry option due to its slim width.

History
Early history and adoption

The M1911 pistol originated in the late 1890s, as a search for a suitable self-loading (or semi-automatic) handgun, to replace the variety of revolvers then in service.[2] The United States of America was adopting new firearms at a phenomenal rate; several new handguns and two all-new service rifles (the M1892/96/98 Krag and M1895 Navy Lee), as well as a series of revolvers by Colt and Smith & Wesson for the Army and Navy were adopted just in that decade. The next decade would see a similar pace, including the adoption of several more revolvers and an intensive search for a self-loading pistol that would culminate in official adoption of the M1911 after the turn of the decade.

Hiram S. Maxim had designed a self-loading pistol in the 1880s, but was preoccupied with machine guns. Nevertheless, the application of his principle of using bullet energy to reload led to several self-loading pistols in the 1890s. The designs caught the attention of various militaries, each of which began programs to find a suitable one for their forces. In the U.S., such a program would lead to a formal test at the turn of the 19th to the 20th century.

During the end of 1899 and start of 1900, a test of self-loading pistols was conducted, which included entries from Mauser (the C96 “Broomhandle”), Mannlicher (the Steyr Mannlicher M1894), and Colt (the Colt M1900).[2]

This led to a purchase of 1,000 DWM Luger pistols, chambered in 7.65 mm Luger, a bottlenecked cartridge. These would go on field trials but ran into some issues, especially in regard to stopping power. Other governments had also made similar complaints, which resulted in DWM producing an enlarged version of the round, the 9mm Parabellum (known in current military parlance as the 9x19mm NATO), a necked-up version of the 7.65 mm round. Fifty of these were tested as well by the U.S. Army in 1903.
General William Crozier became Chief of Ordnance of the Army in 1901.

In response to problems encountered by American units fighting Moro guerrillas during the Philippine-American War, the then-standard Colt M1892 revolver, in .38 Long Colt, was found to be unsuitable for the rigors of jungle warfare, particularly in terms of stopping power, as the Moros had very high battle morale and frequently used drugs to inhibit the sensation of pain.[3] The U.S. Army briefly reverted to using the M1873 single-action revolver in .45 Colt caliber, which had been standard during the last decades of the 19th century; the heavier bullet was found to be more effective against charging tribesmen.[4] The problems with the .38 Long Colt led to the Army shipping new single action .45 Colt revolvers to the Philippines in 1902. It also prompted the then-Chief of Ordnance, General William Crozier, to authorize further testing for a new service pistol.[4]

Following the 1904 Thompson-LaGarde pistol round effectiveness tests, Colonel John T. Thompson stated that the new pistol “should not be of less than .45 caliber” and would preferably be semi-automatic in operation.[4] This led to the 1906 trials of pistols from six firearms manufacturing companies (namely, Colt, Bergmann, Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken (DWM), Savage Arms Company, Knoble, Webley, and White-Merril).[4]

Of the six designs submitted, three were eliminated early on, leaving only the Savage, Colt, and DWM designs chambered in the new .45 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol) cartridge.[4] These three still had issues that needed correction, but only Colt and Savage resubmitted their designs. There is some debate over the reasons for DWM’s withdrawal—some say they felt there was bias and that the DWM design was being used primarily as a “whipping boy” for the Savage and Colt pistols,[5] though this does not fit well with the earlier 1900 purchase of the DWM design over the Colt and Steyr entries. In any case, a series of field tests from 1907 to 1911 were held to decide between the Savage and Colt designs.[4] Both designs were improved between each testing over their initial entries, leading up to the final test before adoption.[4]

Among the areas of success for the Colt was a test at the end of 1910 attended by its designer, John Browning. 6,000 rounds were fired from a single pistol over the course of two days. When the gun began to grow hot, it was simply dumped in a bucket of water to cool it. The Colt gun passed with flying colors, having no malfunctions, while the Savage designs had 37.[4]

Service history

Comparison of government-issue M1911 and M1911A1 pistols
M15 General Officers adopted by the U.S. Army in the 1970s for issue to Generals.

Following its success in trials, the Colt pistol was formally adopted by the Army on March 29, 1911, thus gaining its designation, M1911 (Model of 1911). It was adopted by the Navy and Marine Corps in 1913. Originally manufactured only by Colt, demand for the firearm in World War I saw the expansion of manufacture to the government-owned Springfield Armory.

Battlefield experience in the First World War led to some more small external changes, completed in 1924. The new version received a modified type classification, M1911A1. Changes to the original design were minor and consisted of a shorter trigger, cutouts in the frame behind the trigger, an arched mainspring housing, a longer grip safety spur (to prevent slide bite), a wider front sight, a shorter spur on the hammer, and simplified grip checkering by eliminating the “Double Diamond” reliefs.[4] Those unfamiliar with the design are often unable to tell the difference between the two versions at a glance. No significant internal changes were made, and parts remained interchangeable between the two.

Working for the U.S. Ordnance Office, David Marshall Williams developed a .22 training version of the M1911 using a floating chamber to give the .22 long rifle rimfire recoil similar to the .45 version.[4] As the Colt Service Ace, this was available both as a handgun and as a conversion kit for .45 M1911 pistols.[4]

World War II

World War II and the years leading up to it created a great demand. During the war, about 1.9 million units were procured by the U.S. Government for all forces, production being undertaken by several manufacturers, including Remington Rand (900,000 produced), Colt (400,000), Ithaca Gun Company (400,000), Union Switch & Signal (50,000), and Singer (500). So many were produced that after 1945 the government did not order any new pistols, and simply used existing parts inventories to “arsenal refinish” guns when necessary. This pistol was favored by US military personnel.[6]

Before World War II, a small number of Colts were produced under license at the Norwegian weapon factory Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk (these Colts were known as “Kongsberg Colt”). During the German occupation of Norway the production continued. These pistols are highly regarded by modern collectors, with the 920 examples stamped with Nazi Waffenamt codes being the most sought after. German forces also used captured M1911A1 pistols, using the designation “Pistole 660(a)”.[7] The M1911 pattern also formed the basis for the Argentine Ballester-Molina and certain Spanish Star and Llama pistols made after 1922.

Replacement for most uses

After World War II, the M1911 continued to be a mainstay of the United States Armed Forces in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. It was also used during Desert Storm in specialized U.S. Army units and US Navy Mobile Construction Battalions (Seabees), and has seen service in both Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom, with U.S. Army Special Forces Groups and Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance Companies.

However, by the late 1970s the M1911A1 was acknowledged to be showing its age. Under political pressure from NATO to conform to the NATO-standard pistol cartridge, the US Air Force ran a Joint Service Small Arms Program to select a new semi-automatic pistol using the NATO-standard 9mm Parabellum pistol cartridge. After trials, the Beretta 92S-1 was chosen. The Army contested this result and subsequently ran its own competition in 1981, the XM9 trials, eventually leading to the official adoption of the Beretta 92F on January 14, 1985. By the later 1980s production was ramping up despite a controversial XM9 retrial and a separate XM10 reconfirmation that was boycotted by some entrants of the original trials, cracks in the frames of some pre-M9 Beretta-produced pistols, and also despite a problem with slide separation using higher than specified pressure rounds that resulted in injuries to some US Navy special operations operatives. This last issue resulted in an updated model that includes additional protection for the user, the 92FS, and updates to the ammunition used.

By the early 1990s, most M1911A1s had been replaced by the M9, though a limited number remain in use by special units. The United States Marine Corps in particular were noted for continuing the use of M1911 pistols for selected personnel in MEU(SOC) and reconnaissance units (though the USMC also purchased over 50,000 M9 handguns). For its part, the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) issued a requirement for a .45 ACP handgun in the Offensive Handgun Weapon System (OHWS) trials. This resulted in the Heckler & Koch OHWS becoming the MK23 Mod 0 Offensive Handgun Weapon System, beating the Colt OHWS, a much modified M1911. Dissatisfaction with the stopping power of the 9mm Parabellum cartridge used in the Beretta M9 has actually promoted re-adoption of handguns based on the .45 ACP cartridge such as the M1911 design, along with other handguns, among USSOCOM units in recent years, though the M9 remains predominant both within SOCOM and in the US military in general.

Current users

Some military and law enforcement organizations in the United States and other countries continue to use (often modified) M1911A1 pistols including Marine Force Recon, Los Angeles Police Department S.W.A.T. and L.A.P.D. S.I.S., the FBI Hostage Rescue Team, F.B.I. regional S.W.A.T. teams, and 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment—Delta (Delta Force). The Tacoma, Washington Police Department selected the Kimber Pro Carry II or Pro Carry II HD as optional, department supplied weapons available to its officers.[8]
A basic version of Smith & Wesson’s SW1911 with user-installed Pachmayr grips.
M1911A1 by Springfield Armory (contemporary remake of WWII G.I. Model, Parkerized).

The M1911A1 is also extremely popular among the general public in the United States for practical and recreational purposes. The pistol is commonly used for concealed carry thanks in part to a single-stack magazine (which makes for a thinner pistol that is therefore easier to conceal), personal defense, target shooting, and competition. Numerous aftermarket accessories allow users to customize the pistol to their liking. There are a growing number of manufacturers of M1911-type pistols and the model continues to be quite popular for its reliability, simplicity, and patriotic appeal. Various tactical, target, and compact models are available. Price ranges from a low end of $250 for an imported model to more than $4,000 for the best competition or tactical models from such as those by Wilson Combat, Ed Brown, Les Baer and Nighthawk Custom.

Due to an increased demand for M1911 pistols among Army Special Operations units, who are known to field a variety of M1911 pistols, the Army Marksmanship Unit began looking to develop a new generation of M1911s and launched the M1911-A2 project in late 2004.[9] The goal was to produce a minimum of seven variants with various sights, internal and external extractors, flat and arched mainspring housings, integral and add-on magazine wells, a variety of finishes and other options, with the idea of providing the end-user a selection from which to select the features that best fit their missions.[9] The AMU performed a well received demonstration of the first group of pistols to the Marine Corps at Quantico and various Special Operations units at Ft. Bragg and other locations.[9] The project provided a feasibility study with insight into future projects.[9] Models were loaned to various Special Operations units, the results of which are classified. An RFP was issued for a Joint Combat Pistol but it was ultimately canceled.[9] Currently units are experimenting with an M1911 platform in .40 which will incorporate lessons learned from the M1911 A2 project. Ultimately, the M1911 A2 project provided a test bed for improving existing M1911s. An improved M1911 variant becoming available in the future is a possibility.[9]

The Springfield Custom Professional Model 1911A1 pistol is produced under contract by Springfield Armory for the FBI regional SWAT teams and the Hostage Rescue Team. This pistol is made in batches on a regular basis by the Springfield Custom Shop, and a few examples from most runs are made available for sale to the general public at a selling price of approximately US$2,500 each.

MEU(SOC) pistol
Main article: MEU(SOC) pistol

Marine Expeditionary Units formerly issued M1911s to Force Recon units.[10] Hand-selected Colt M1911A1 frames were gutted, deburred, and prepared for additional use by the USMC Precision Weapon Section (PWS) at Marine Corps Base Quantico.[10] They were then assembled with after-market grip safeties, ambidextrous thumb safeties, triggers, improved high-visibility sights, accurized barrels, grips, and improved Wilson magazines.[11] These hand-made pistols were tuned to specifications and preferences of end users.[12]

In the late 1980s, the Marines laid out a series of specifications and improvements to make Browning’s design ready for 21st century combat, many of which have been included in MEU(SOC) pistol designs, but design and supply time was limited.[12] Discovering that the Los Angeles Police Department was pleased with their special Kimber M1911 pistols, a single source request was issued to Kimber for just such a pistol despite the imminent release of their TLE/RLII models.[13] Kimber shortly began producing a limited number of what would be later termed the Interim Close Quarters Battle pistol (ICQB). Maintaining the simple recoil assembly, 5-inch barrel (though using a stainless steel match grade barrel), and internal extractor, the ICQB is not much different from Browning’s original design.

The final units as issued to MCSOCOM Det-1 are the Kimber ICQBs with Surefire IMPL (Integrated Military Pistol Light), Dawson Precision Rails, Tritium Novak LoMount sights, Gemtech TRL Tactical Retention Lanyards, modified Safariland 6004 holsters, and Wilson Combat ’47D’ 8 round magazines. They have reportedly been used with over 15,000 rounds apiece.[13]

Other users
Colt 1911 British Service Model, cal .455 Webley Auto

Numbers of Colt M1911s were used by the Royal Navy as sidearms during World War I in .455 Webley Automatic caliber.[4] The handguns were then transferred to the Royal Air Force where they saw use in limited numbers up until the end of World War II as sidearms for air crew in event of bailing out in enemy territory.[4] Some units of the South Korean Air Force still use these original batches as officers’ sidearms.

Norway used the Kongsberg Colt which was a license produced variant and is recognized by the unique slide catch. Many Spanish firearms manufacturers produced pistols derived from the 1911, such as the STAR Model P, the ASTAR 1911PL, and the Llama Model IX-A, just to name a few.[14] Argentina produced a licensed copy, the Model 1927 Sistema Colt, which eventually led to production of the cheaper Ballester-Molina, which is based closely on the 1911.

The Brazilian company IMBEL (Indústria de Material Bélico do Brasil) still produces the .45 in several variants for military and law enforcement uses.

The Greek Hellenic Army issues the M1911 as a sidearm. These are WWII production American pistols supplied as military aid in 1946 and afterward as the US aided Greece against Communist expansion.[15]

The Royal Thai Army still uses USGI M1911s that were supplied as military aid during the Vietnam War era.

The Rapid Action Battalion (RAB Forces), an anti-terrorist tactical team in Bangladesh uses this weapon.[16]

The Armed Forces of the Philippines issues Mil-spec M1911A1 pistols as a sidearm to the special forces, military police and officers. These pistols are produced by Armscor and Colt.

A Chinese Arms manufacturer, Norinco, exports a clone of the M1911A1 for civilian purchase. Importation into the US was blocked by trade rules in 1993. Norinco also manufactured conversion kits to chamber the 7.62x25mm Tokarev round after the Korean war.

Custom models
A Colt M1911 Gold Cup National Match edition with nickel plating.

Since its inception, the M1911 has lent itself to easy customization. Replacement sights, grips, and other aftermarket accessories are the most commonly offered parts. Since the 1950s and the rise of competitive pistol shooting, many companies have been offering the M1911 as a base model for major customization. These modifications can range from changing the external finish, checkering the frame, and hand fitting custom hammers, triggers, and sears. Some modifications include installing compensators and the addition of accessories such as tactical lights and even scopes.[17] These guns can cost over $5000 and are all built from the ground up or on existing base models.[18] The main companies offering custom Colt M1911s are: Springfield Custom Shop, Ed Brown, Nighthawk Custom, Wilson Combat, Kimber, and Les Baer.

Design
Springfield Mil Spec field stripped

Browning’s basic M1911 design has seen very little change throughout its production life.[1] The basic principle of the pistol is recoil operation.[1] As the expanding combustion gases force the bullet down the barrel, they give reverse momentum to the slide and barrel which are locked together during this portion of the firing cycle. After the bullet has left the barrel, the slide and barrel continue rearward a short distance.[1]

At this point, a link pivots the barrel down, out of locking recesses in the slide, and brings the barrel to a stop. As the slide continues rearward, a claw extractor pulls the spent casing from the firing chamber and an ejector strikes the rear of the case pivoting it out and away from the pistol. The slide stops and is then propelled forward by a spring to strip a fresh cartridge from the magazine and feed it into the firing chamber. At the forward end of its travel, the slide locks into the barrel and is ready to fire again.

The military mandated a grip safety and a manual safety.[1] A grip safety, sear disconnect, slide stop, half cock position, and manual safety (located on the left rear of the frame) are on all standard M1911A1s.[1] Several companies have developed a firing pin block safety. Colt’s 80 series uses a trigger operated one and several other manufacturers, including Kimber and Smith & Wesson, use a Swartz firing-pin safety, which is operated by the grip safety.[19][20]

The same basic design has also been offered commercially and has been used by other militaries. In addition to the .45 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol), models chambered for .38 Super, 9mm Parabellum, .400 Corbon, and other cartridges were also offered. The M1911 was developed from earlier Colt designs firing rounds such as .38 ACP. The design beat out many other contenders during the government’s selection period, during the late 1890s and 1900s, up to the pistol’s adoption. The M1911 officially replaced a range of revolvers and pistols across branches of the U.S. armed forces, though a number of other designs have seen use in certain niches.

Despite being challenged by newer and lighter weight pistol designs in .45 caliber, such as the Glock 21, the SIG Sauer P220 and the Heckler & Koch USP, the M1911 shows no signs of decreasing popularity and continues to be widely present in various competitive matches such as those of IDPA, IPSC, and Bullseye.[9]

The slide stop pin of the 1911 can be depressed with firing if the index finger is placed along the side of the gun to assist in aiming the gun. That is an effective method of aiming which was known of since the early 1800’s. Cautionary language against using that method of aiming and firing was included in the initial manual on the 1911 which was published in 1912. It also is found in other military manuals on the 1911 up to the 1940’s.[21]

Users

* Argentina[4]
* Brazil: The Brazilian Army uses a version of the M1911 developed by IMBEL chambered in 9x19mm Parabellum and designated M973.[22][23]
* Bolivia[24][25]
* Colombia[24][25]
* Costa Rica[24][25]
* Dominican Republic[24][25]
* Ecuador[25]
* Fiji[24]
* Greece[15]
* Guatemala[25][26]
* Haiti[24][25]
* Indonesia[26]
* Iran[24][26]
* Liberia[24]
* Mexico[24][25][26]
* Nazi Germany[4]
* Nicaragua[24][25]
* Norway[4]
* Philippines[24]
* Spain[27]
* South Korea[4]
* South Vietnam[4]
* Soviet Union: Thousands of pistols were received as military assistance during World War II.[27]
* Taiwan[24]
* United Kingdom[4]
* United States: Used by the US Army. A quantity of 5,000 was also purchased by the FBI Hostage Rescue Team.[27]
* Zimbabwe[24]

Specifications

* Cartridge: .45 ACP;
* Other commercial and military derivatives: Other versions offered include .38 Super, 9mm Parabellum, .40 S&W, 10mm Auto, .400 Corbon, .22 LR, .50 GI, .455 Webley, 9×23 mm Winchester, and others. The major ones were 9mm Parabellum (9x19mm), .38 Super, 10mm Auto.
* Barrel: 5 in (127 mm) Government, 4.25 in (108 mm) Commander, and the 3.5 in (89 mm) Officer’s ACP. Some modern “carry” guns have significantly shorter barrels and frames, while others use standard frames and extended slides with 6 in (152 mm) barrels
* Rate of twist: 16 in (406 mm) per turn, or 1:35.5 calibers (.45 ACP)
* Operation: Recoil-operated, closed breech, single action, semi-automatic
* Weight (unloaded): 2 lb 7 oz (1.1 kg) (government model)
* Height: 5.25 in (133 mm)
* Length: 8.25 in (210 mm)
* Capacity: 7+1 rounds (7 in standard-capacity magazine +1 in firing chamber); 8+1 in aftermarket standard-size magazine; 9+1 in extended and high capacity magazines/frames guns chambered in .38 Super and 9mm have a 9+1 capacity. Some models using double-stacked magazines, such as those from Para Ordnance, Strayer Voigt Inc and STI International Inc have significantly larger capacities. Colt makes their own 8 round magazines which they include with their Series 80 XSE models.
* Safeties: A grip safety, sear disconnect, slide stop, a half cock position, and manual safety (located on the left rear of the frame) are on all standard M1911A1s. Several companies have developed a firing pin block. Colt’s 80 series uses a trigger operated one and several other manufacturers (such as Smith & Wesson) use one operated by the grip safety.